Who are hikikomori? Demographic and clinical features of hikikomori (prolonged social withdrawal): A systematic review

<jats:sec><jats:title>Objective:</jats:title><jats:p>This review, which was registered with PROSPERO (CRD42021237988), aimed to systematically extract common elements in the hikikomori definition or criteria applied by researchers and examine cultural differences and chronological changes in the demographic characteristics of hikikomori individuals such as age, gender and hikikomori duration.</jats:p></jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Method:</jats:title><jats:p>For inclusion in the review, the hikikomori criteria, age and gender of the hikikomori individuals had to be specified, and the article had to be peer-reviewed and written in Japanese or English, focusing on hikikomori individuals or their families. Case studies, reviews and qualitative studies were excluded.</jats:p></jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Results:</jats:title><jats:p>The total sample size for the 52 studies included in the review was 4744. Over 80% of the studies included the elements ‘not working or attending school’, ‘not socializing outside one’s home’ and ‘duration of hikikomori’ in their hikikomori criteria, and many studies included the element ‘staying at home on most days except solitary outings’. A cross-temporal meta-analysis showed the possibility that the age of hikikomori individuals increased chronologically (β = 0.44, B = 0.50, 95% confidence interval = [0.16, 0.84]). Comparisons weighted by sample size between Japan and other countries showed the possibility that the age of hikikomori individuals was higher ( d = 0.32), the percentage of males was lower ( d = 0.91) and the hikikomori duration was shorter ( d = 2.06) in studies conducted in countries other than Japan. However, many of the included studies had a high risk of selection bias, and this bias may have influenced the results obtained. Thus, the results of this study may represent the researcher’s perception of hikikomori rather than accurately representing the actual condition of hikikomori.</jats:p></jats:sec><jats:sec><jats:title>Conclusion:</jats:title><jats:p>Researchers should specifically identify similarities and differences in the clinical picture of hikikomori and compare the studies to organize the findings derived from studies focusing on hikikomori.</jats:p></jats:sec>