TGF‐β signaling: A recap of SMAD‐independent and SMAD‐dependent pathways

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  • Sabreena Aashaq
    Department of Immunology and Molecular Medicine Sher‐i‐Kashmir Institute of Medical Sciences, Soura Srinagar JK India
  • Asiya Batool
    Division of Cancer Pharmacology Indian Institute of Integrative Medicine Srinagar JK India
  • Shabir Ahmad Mir
    Department of Health Services JK India
  • Mushtaq Ahmad Beigh
    Department of Nanotechnology University of Kashmir Srinagar JK India
  • Khurshid Iqbal Andrabi
    Department of Biotechnology University of Kashmir Srinagar JK India
  • Zaffar Amin Shah
    Department of Immunology and Molecular Medicine Sher‐i‐Kashmir Institute of Medical Sciences, Soura Srinagar JK India

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<jats:title>Abstract</jats:title><jats:p>Transforming growth factor‐β (TGF‐β) is a proinflammatory cytokine known to control a diverse array of pathological and physiological conditions during normal development and tumorigenesis. TGF‐β‐mediated physiological effects are heterogeneous and vary among different types of cells and environmental conditions. TGF‐β serves as an antiproliferative agent and inhibits tumor development during primary stages of tumor progression; however, during the later stages, it encourages tumor development and mediates metastatic progression and chemoresistance. The fundamental elements of TGF‐β signaling have been divulged more than a decade ago; however, the process by which the signals are relayed from cell surface to nucleus is very complex with additional layers added in tumor cell niches. Although the intricate understanding of TGF‐β‐mediated signaling pathways and their regulation are still evolving, we tried to make an attempt to summarize the TGF‐β‐mediated SMAD‐dependent andSMAD‐independent pathways. This manuscript emphasizes the functions of TGF‐β as a metastatic promoter and tumor suppressor during the later and initial phases of tumor progression respectively.</jats:p>

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