Semantic Transfer in Modern Translational Equivalents: The Cases of “<i>Bungaku</i>” and “<i>Kyōiku</i>”

<p>“Bungaku” and “kyōiku” are ancient Chinese words, but in nineteenth-century English–Chinese dictionaries, they are given as translational equivalents of “literature” and “education,” respectively. Since the latter had conventionally often been used as a verb without any established noun usage, the former was sometimes used as a noun. Influenced by Japan in modern times, “kyōiku” acquired noun usage and “bungaku” came to be used exclusively as a translation of “literature.” In Japanese, words originally from the Chinese classics that later became translational equivalents are known as “semantic transfers” (ten’yōgo), while those such as “bungaku” and “kyōiku” that acquired the meaning of modern concepts in Japanese are also referred to as “Japanese-made Chinese words” (Wasei Kango). However, this study argues the contributions made by missionaries who came to China and completed relationships of translational equivalence need to be objectively assessed. This research also focuses on how the Japanese language was introduced to modern concepts as it received these words. As such, this study classifies words like “bungaku” and “kyōiku” as “Chinese–Japanese-made words” (Nicchū gassaku go). This will contribute to describing the formation process of modern concepts more accurately, eliminating inconsistencies and confusion in the classification of translated words, as well as countering the nationalistic tone that occasionally appears in translation studies.</p>