Denial of Indian immigrants entry to North America during the early 20th century, and Manila as a port of call

This article attempts to reveal a series of early-20th century measures taken in North America to deny Indian immigrants entry via a Pacific steamship route and the consequent Indian protest movement, focusing on Canada, the United States mainland and the Philippines.<br> 　Indian immigrants repeatedly faced high rate of denial of entry first in Canada, then in the U.S. mainland and finally in passage to the U.S. mainland via the Philippines, which was then a United States territory, even though legal text did not list Indian nationals as subject to immigration restrictions. Rather, refusal can be attributed to differences between the legal principles of both the U.S. and the UK and administrative practices against Indian immigrants at each immigration office. On the other hand, this presented Indian immigrants with an opportunity to appeal and have denial of entry withdrawn by decisions on admissibility based on the application of specific laws at each immigration site, including the mainland entry route via Manila.<br> 　Even in cases where landing in the U.S. mainland via Manila was blocked, one Indian political activist, G.D.Kumar, who had protested against denial of entry to Indians in Canada, joined Indian immigrants in Manila and established the Hindusthanee Association there. By stressing Indians’position as British subjects, the Association claimed the right to enter the U.S. mainland, while appealing to the Indian and British governments for help.<br> 　After no action was taken by the British imperial authorities, Indians who had been prevented from entering the U.S. mainland and forced to remain in Manila boarded the steamship Komagata Maru and attempted to enter Canada, again emphasizing their rights as subjects of the British Empire; but to no avail. The author concludes that it was this repeated disrespect in Manila for their rights as British subjects during their immigration protests that was an important factor in bringing this group of Indians into close contact with the anti-British movement.